Great American Cities Essay Example for Free

Great American Cities Essay Jane Jacobs’ 1961 work The Death and Life of Great American Cities examines the problems with post-World War II urban planning and argue that cities should embrace visual and social diversity, interaction, and mixed uses in neighborhoods. She aims her most pointed criticisms at the disastrous urban renewal projects of the 1950s and ‘60s, which she argues disrupted neighborhood fabrics and worsened urban conditions instead of improving them. QUESTION ONE Jacobs argues that great cities require must look beyond simply neighborhoods and take a more holistic approach, with safe streets, clear delineations between public and private spaces, small blocks, and low-rise buildings from which the sidewalks are easily visible. Great urban environments literally start with the streets and sidewalks, where people interact with both one another throughout the day and the built environment. Vital cities need and should encourage social interactions, have a variety of uses (residential and commercial), should have spaces that allow such interaction (like safe streets and parks), and should embrace a degree of social and visual diversity. She also maintains that cities do not need to be decentralized or redistributed, as planners of the time were doing, and that planners must heed cities’ social and physical realities rather than imposing theories. Urban renewal projects often fail because they are too large in scale, lack diverse amenities (many were mostly commercial projects, for example), and were homogeneous spaces where social interaction did not frequently occur throughout the day. QUESTION TWO Forms of social interaction (other than those created by public spaces) like social organizations and residential classes help because they unite people from different backgrounds and neighborhoods, and ethnic organizations help assimilate and include newcomers, who often find urban life isolating and alienating. They need to transcend neighborhood and ethnic boundaries, as Jacobs says, â€Å"[City] people are mobile . . . [and] are not stuck with the provincialism of a neighborhood, any why should they be? Isn’t wide choice and rich opportunity the point of cities? † (Jacobs 116) Isolation, Jacobs claims, is bad for cities because it contributes more to crime and slum development than low income alone. QUESTION THREE Jacobs believes that post-World War II urban planners had good intentions but used inappropriate methods of dealing with cities, often because they adhered to theories instead of examining cities’ realities, which often contradicted the theories and principles they used. In addition, she claims they had an innate fear and disdain for cities, favoring suburbs (much like the federal government did, with highway construction and the FHA’s suburban bias) and applying methods to cities that overlooked the conditions necessary for social interaction and public safety. Planners often embraced urban renewal projects such as high-rise housing projects and large commercial complexes, which failed because their size discouraged easy monitoring of the sidewalks and streets, did not generate sufficient pedestrian traffic at all times of day, lacked a balance of amenities with residences, and promoted more danger and less use than needed to keep them vital. Jacobs argues that planners need to abandon what she calls their â€Å"superstitions† about cities, especially their dread of high density (which they think promotes slum growth). High density and overcrowding are not synonymous, and planners often struggled to accept visual diversity, considering mixed ages and types of buildings â€Å"disorderly† and thus bad. QUESTION FOUR The phrase â€Å"a most intricate and close-grained diversity of use† means an interconnected urban fabric of social interactions, amenities, and mixed uses (residential, workplaces, retail, etc. ) without rigid separations or compartmentalization. Neighborhoods should not become islands, she claims, because that would promote visual monotony and isolation (which in poorer areas contributes to the creation of slums). She advocates mixed uses that bring safety, public contact, and life to urban areas, and this cannot occur through planners’ adherence to visual homogeneity or large-scale, single-use renewal. Neighborhoods must achieve diversity by serving a variety of functions, thus generating ample uses and encouraging movement of people (particularly pedestrians). Using her own New York street as an example, she writes that her area’s workplaces give local commerce support during the day, and other businesses draw the residents in the evenings; â€Å"Many enterprises, unable to exist on residential trade by itself, would disappear. Or if the industries were to lose us residents, enterprises unable to exist on the working people by themselves would disappear† (Jacobs 153). Such areas also need to mix workplaces with retail and residences so that neighborhoods do not become empty at given times of day (which can allow crime), provide amenities for the people there, and to be close and connected enough to other neighborhoods to become functioning, vital parts of an overall urban fabric. QUESTION FIVE Of city streets, Jacobs writes, â€Å"Streets and their sidewalks, the main public places of a city, are its most vital organs. Think of a city and what comes to mind? Its streets† (Jacobs 29). She considers the street and sidewalk the basic units of quality urban life because they are an arena of basic social interactions, whether among neighbors or between consumers and merchants. They become safe when constantly used and watched, so residents’ and workers’ proximity to sidewalks is important; well watched, frequently-used spaces monitor people’s behavior and render them safe. In addition, safe streets depend on three factors: clear demarcation of public and private spaces; streets and sidewalks must be visible from the surrounding buildings; and streets need to be used often throughout the day, not becoming abandoned when workers leave (as happens in solely commercial areas, for example). Little-used areas become bleak and conducive to crime, she says. City planners, she claims, do not understand the street’s importance and in the postwar years built large commercial or public spaces that did not attract people throughout the day and night, lacked amenities or nearby residences, and were often too large to safely monitor. Streets become unsafe, she maintains, when people are not close enough to the streets to see what happens there or to interact with passers-by. This was a severe problem in high-rise housing projects, which were hard to police and encouraged crime, as well as being bleak, monotonous, and isolated from the fabric of city life. QUESTION SIX Jacobs considers social and cultural life more important than physical organization alone, though she believes that the two are related and that physical environment has a considerable influence on social life. Dysfunctional places fail to encourage or facilitate social interaction (which she considers the heart of urban living), and a failed neighborhood â€Å"is overwhelmed by its defects and problems and is progressively more helpless before them† (Jacobs 112). On the other hand, functional cities have active social and cultural life partly because they have amenities that draw people at all times of day, mix uses and include residents, workers, and other visitors, and are well integrated with other parts of the city. Visual order, she claims, should not be an end in itself – aesthetics alone do not promote social or cultural activity. She even deems utopian planners efforts to govern cities’ visual character â€Å"authoritarian† and writes, â€Å"All this is a life-killing (and art-killing) misuse of art† (Jacobs 373). Streets with active, sage social lives are seldom visually well ordered and might even look like â€Å"slums† to an uninformed observer. In addition, visual order does not help when it promotes monotony and imposes itself on diverse places; diversity makes a positive difference and buildings should compliment one another, not all look alike. QUESTION SEVEN Jacobs is skeptical of planning because it often relies on its own theories rather than looking at realities; however, she does not argue unconditionally in favor of letting owners or builders operate with little regulation, adding buildings or complexes piecemeal without government guidance. She maintains that neighborhood and city fabrics must be respected and used as guidelines for building; a new privately funded residential building or commercial facility can easily disrupt a neighborhood if it fails to compliment its surroundings, foster pedestrian usage and social interaction all day, and isolates a neighborhood by failing to connect with other parts of the city. Owners and builders can harm diversity by creating bland housing developments, which she deems â€Å"truly marvels of dullness and regimentation, sealed against any buoyancy or vitality of city life† (Jacobs 4), or else by imposing radical changes too quickly, instead of fostering gradual changes. If they use traditional methods of urban renewal, then builders and private owners will fare no better than the builders of housing projects or large commercial developments will. QUESTION EIGHT Over the past two decades, Americans have rethought their formerly negative attitudes toward cities, especially with concerns over suburban sprawl, and planners have begun heeding Jacobs’ advice. Urban neighborhoods in numerous cities have been gentrified (or â€Å"unslummed,† as Jacobs puts it) with new residential properties (either new condominiums or rehabilitated industrial buildings) and retail and/or workspaces. New York’s formerly squalid Times Square is a good example of a slum â€Å"unslummed† with retail and offices, and Minneapolis’ Uptown and warehouse districts have been transformed from run-down sections to attractive places to live, shop, and be entertained. Urban downtowns have received ample attention from developers and public agencies alike; Baltimore’s downtown has been radically changed in the last twenty years, from a seedy place to an attractive one with ample facilities (like an aquarium and the Camden Yards baseball stadium). In addition, public housing has been transformed from large, impersonal, often crime-ridden high-rise towers (such as Pruitt-Igoe in St. Louis, perhaps the worst example of public housing’s failure) to smaller complexes that more closely resemble housing available on the private market. However, urban American has not been completely transformed despite this positive change. Slums still exist throughout American cities, and much of the new development does not help the urban poor, since these new, context-sensitive areas often displace existing residents or businesses and rents in new dwellings are often too high for some. Despite this, American cities have started reviving and planners less antagonistic to urban centers. QUESTION NINE Jacobs was certainly radical when the book appeared in 1961. At that time, urban planners were so focused on urban renewal projects (like public housing, commercial complexes, or sports or cultural facilities) that they paid no attention to the social fabrics that made cities livable. They seemed to operate under the misconception that all urban centers were slums and that large-scale projects would improve them; instead, they uprooted existing neighborhoods and replaced them with facilities that did not encourage pedestrian usage, failed to foster frequent activity throughout the day, were often difficult to police, and did not connect with their own neighborhoods or others within a given city. 1961 also fell during the decades-long exodus of whites from cities to suburbs (which pro-white, pro-suburban federal housing policies assisted), and Americans’ lingering anti-urban attitudes still prevailed. Jacobs offered a different way of envisioning cities, and she seemed to see planners’ errors better than planners of the time would admit; indeed, it took decades before American urban planners and builders approached cities anew. QUESTION TEN This work remains relevant because it presents a set of principles that seem to work well over forty years later. It avoids concentrating on aesthetics, which she dubs â€Å"hair-splitting about fashions in design† (Jacobs 3), and instead discusses social dynamics, for which neighborhoods and cities should facilitate. She shows a clear understanding of cities that avoids the abstract and attests to a more experiential point of view, not a set of theories. However, money plays a much larger role today than it did in 1961; though builders and planners now follow her ideas, this new urbanism is expensive and many less-affluent city dwellers find themselves displaced by new development. Also, while many neighborhoods are reviving with new housing and retail, those areas tend to attract the same stores and building types, so that one revived neighborhood looks like another one nearby, creating a sort of monotony (of which Jacobs is particularly critical). Nonetheless, her ideas are perhaps even more relevant today, now that American cities are reviving along lines she first drew. Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage, 1961.

Buddha Essay -- essays research papers fc

Buddha The word Buddha means "enlightened one." It is used today as a title to the one who has given us more religious beliefs than almost any other human who lived in this world. However, he was not given this name at birth; he had to earn it for himself by undergoing long, hard hours of meditation and contemplation. Buddha has changed the lifestyles of many cultures with new, never-before asked questions that were explained by his search for salvation. He began an entirely new religion that dared to test the boundaries of reality and go beyond common knowledge to find the answers of the mysteries of life. India During the sixth century BC, India was a land of political and religious turmoil. It was an era of great brutality with the domination of Northwest India by Indo-Aryan invaders. Many people, influenced by the Aryan civilization, began to question the value of life and it's true meaning. Schools were opened because of this curiosity where teachers would discuss the significance of existence and the nature of man and held programs to reconstruct one's spiritual self. (Pardue, page 228) Background Near the town of Kapilavastivu, today known as Nepal, lived King Suddhodhana and Queen Maya of the indigenous tribe known as the Shakyas. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 687) Queen Maya soon became pregnant and had a dream shortly before she gave birth. In this dream a beautiful, white elephant with six tusks entered her room and touched her side. This dream was soon interpreted by the wisest Brahmin, or Priest of Brahmanism, that she was to give birth to a son that would, if he were to remain in the castle, become the wisest king in the world, but if he were ever to leave the castle he would then become the wisest prophet far into future generations. (Encyclopedia Americana, page 410) In around the year 563 BC, Siddhartha Gautama was born into a life of pure luxury. (Wangu, page 16) His father wanted to make sure that his son was well taken care of as he grew to prevent him from desiring to leave the palace. Suddhodhana, listening to the prophecy, kept Siddhartha away from the pain of reality so that he could follow in his father's footsteps in becoming a well respected leader. As Siddhartha grew, ... ... his teachings will be remembered for generations. He has sacrificed his total salvation so that mankind could be taught of the path to enlightenment. The Buddha has proven to be one of the wisest and giving men who touched the lives of so many millions of people. Buddhism will live on as a major impact on the cultures of the world and the Buddha will never be forgotten. "Everything that has been created is subject to decay and death. Everything is transitory. Work out your own salvation with diligence." -Buddha (Wangu, page 31) Bibliography "Buddha and Buddhism." Encyclopedia Americana. 1990. Cohen, John Lebold. Buddha. Mary Frank, 1969. Pardue, Peter A. "Buddha." Encyclopedia of World Biography. McGraw Hill, 1973. "The Buddha and Buddhism." The New Encyclopedia Britannica. 1990. Wangu, Madhu Bazaz. Buddhism. New York: Facts On File, 1993.

Living Alone at an Old Age Essay

Living alone has many advantages as well as disadvantages especially when at the old age. Being 80 years old is no easy task staying alone, according to the Administration on Aging, approximately 11 million aged-adults lived alone in the US in the year 2010 and the numbers are soaring up at a swift pace (Stevenson). However, many argue that age is just but a number and the older one becomes the wiser he or she gets thus can be able to take good care of self. The next paragraph will focus on the various cons and pros of living alone at an old age. Unlike living in a nursing home or with the children, living alone grants one the opportunity to make rules in the house reducing accountability responsibility to others. One is able to decorate the house as he or she pleases without receiving judgments or criticisms from others. In nursing homes one lacks the privacy he or she needs, there are people all over and the noise is too much, when alone one does not need to compromise with such situations. However, there are cons of living alone such as when one has poor eyesight it is risky to live alone. Additionally, when on medication or sick living alone is not an option. One may experience some social isolation when alone and at times forget important appointments as well as keeping up with the daily chores. Though it may sound promising to live alone when in good health at an old age, when ailments start kicking in, it is advisable to live in a Nursing home or with the children in order to live safely(Stratford). References Stevenson, Sarah. ‘Dangers Of Seniors Living Alone’.  Senior Living News and Trends | A Place for Mom. N. p., 2013. Web. 26 May. 2014. Stratford, Kathryn. ‘Many Of The Benefits Of Living Alone’.HubPages. N. p., 2013. Web. 26 May. 2014. Source document

Theme Of Romanticism In The Cask Of Amontillado - 760 Words

In Romantic writings, there are many qualities throughout the story that prove it is Romantic. The time period in which these were written was roughly from 1810 to 1860. They contained an emphasis on imagination, emotion, rebellion, and nature. The story â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado,† by Edgar Allen Poe was one made in this time period. In the story, Romanticism is shown through an emphasis on emotion, the selfish qualities of the main character, and how the story is opposite of Puritan religious text. An emphasis on emotion was shown by poor decisions made by characters in the story. Fortunato throughout the plot continues to follow Montresor through a giant tomb of his ancestors’ bones even when there are plenty of reasons for him to go†¦show more content†¦As Montresor narrates towards the beginning of the story he claims, â€Å" It must be understood that neither by word nor deed had I given Fortunato cause to doubt my good will†¦ he did not perceiv e that my smile now was at the thought of his immolation.† (Poe 866). Montresor basically explains how he is selfishly acting as if he cares for his enemy when really it is only to benefit him by getting the revenge he seeks. The innocence that he tries to convey shows the Romantic quality of selfishness in the main character. Previous to the Romantic period there was the Puritan period of writing, which focused solely on religion. Romantic writings are not the same as religious, being nearly opposite in some ways. This story clearly opposed the ways of religion through its explanations of revenge, murder and death. A mentioning of God is made in the story, but not in a worshiping religious type of way. In the story, Fortunato begged for mercy, but Montresor did not give in when he said, â€Å" ‘For the love of God, Montresor!’ â€Å" (Poe 870), to which he simply responded, â€Å" ‘Yes,’ I said, ‘for the love of God!’ â€Å" (Poe 870 ) Fortunato obviously was a religious man, and he was seeking help from the love of God when he realized he was in danger. Montresor felt no type of mercy towards that which showed his lack of faith in religion. RomanticismShow MoreRelatedThe Cask of Amontillado by Edgar Allan Poe Critical Essay1935 Words   |  8 Pagesyoung age and his foster parents disowning him to marrying his cousin and never settling down in one place. Poe had a unique and tumultuous life full of ups and downs which relate to his characters and the themes of his stories. In The Cask of Amontillado poe uses irony, symbolism and the theme of revenge to draw in the reader and to leave and deep emotional reaction to the story that won’t soon be forgotten. Edgar Allan Poe was born January 19, 1809 in Boston, Massachusetts. His Parents wereRead MoreGothic Literature : The Dark Side Of Romanticism1518 Words   |  7 PagesGothic literature is the dark side of Romanticism. The theme of Gothic stories is either mysterious, horror, or even death. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe are authors that demonstrate Gothic literature. Some of their work include, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† written by Edgar Allan Poe and â€Å"The Birthmark† by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The Cask of Amontillado tells how the narrator Montresor seeks revenge on his acquaintance, Fortunato. Montresor to desperate measures and did not catch. However, inRead MoreThe Cask Of Amontillado By Edgar Allen Poe2223 Words   |  9 Pages Edgar Allen Poe’s The Cask of Amontillado tells the story of a man who illustrates vengeance in its purest form. The short story is set in an unnamed Italian city during a time of celebration and carnival. It is told in a flashback by the narrator, Montresor, who recounts the day he took revenge on Fortunato, a man who continuously insulted him until he had enough and responded. This story is one of the most influential works in the horror genre as it possesses valuable insight into the psychologicalRead MoreA Gray Atmosphere By Edgar Alan Poe1404 Words   |  6 PagesA Gray Atmosphere Edgar Alan Poe is the father of Dark Romanticism. He brought out the ‘gothic’ of literature and with that said not many of his pieces had a happy ending. When thinking of Poe a chill comes over me, the brute force, imagery and vocabulary that he used was enough to make any reader shudder, yet keep reading. Poe talks of dark things such as murder, insanity and betrayal; he certainly had a different perspective when it came to writing. The culture and ethical value in his storiesRead MoreRomantic Intellectuals? Discuss 5 Romantic Era Intellectuals1457 Words   |  6 PagesRomantic Intellectuals? Discuss 5 Romantic era Intellectuals and examine their lives, beliefs, and works. The Romanticism Era had a lot of intellectuals. These intellectuals had a common set of characteristics. Here is a list of the Characteristics of these intellectuals. Most had roots in Germany, the had emphasis on emotions and sentiment, not reason or logic. They also believed that you dealt with inner forces rather than external events or material objects-interest in the supernatural, natureRead MoreAnalysis Of Edgar Allan Poe s The Cask Of Amontillado1018 Words   |  5 PagesGothic period was basically the Renaissance of American literature. American romantics were influenced by eras that before them, and their writings were a different reaction against the philosophy of the previous eras. With this being said, American Romanticism grew from salvation, and guilt, as they excitedly developed their own unique style of writing. American romantic authors had a strong sense of general identity and pride in being American. For this reason, American authors during this time had aRead More Atmosphere of Terror and Suspense in Gothic Literature Essay4335 Words   |  18 Pages They were a reaction against realistic literature of the 18th century. Some saw it as a sub-genre of romantics but others argued it was a genre in its own right. Whatever its genre, gothic novels were typically characterized by their romanticism, melodrama and dark foreboding settings. They were critical of the society of the day and fiercely anti- catholic, disliking the church?s power and brutality. Some of the main gothic writers of the time included Edgar Alan Poe, Charles DickensRead MoreRomanticism Defined By The Merriam Webster Dictionary1864 Words   |  8 PagesSara Fergadiotti Hannah Joelle English M01B August 4, 2014 TBD Romanticism defined by the Merriam-Webster Dictionary is â€Å"a literary, artistic, and philosophical movement originating in the 18th century, characterised chiefly by a reaction against neo-classicism and an emphasis on the imagination and emotions, and marked especially in English literature by sensibility and the use of autobiographical material, an exaltation of the primitive and the common man, an appreciation of external nature,Read MoreRunning Head: Edgar Allen Poe 1. Edgar Allen Poe2. . .1286 Words   |  6 Pagescontribution of Poe to the American literature. Poe was very much influential in helping the American literature to become more metaphysical and philosophical than it had ever been, more also with regards to dark Romanticism of the Germany instead of the frequently sentimentalized romanticism of the Transcendentalists of New England (Phillips Hayes, 2011). Poe also assisted in making periodical publishing very essential in the Cultural literature of Americans. The writing on the Americans within theRead More The American Renaissance Essay1168 Words   |  5 PagesMasterpieces The American Renaissance, a literary and cultural period circa extending from 1820 to the mid-1860s, gained inspiration from the unresolved issues of the American Revolution. The American Renaissance literary style was coined as Romanticism, an international philosophical movement that redefined the perceptions of Western cultures, and seldom refers to the preconceived notions of love. Some important authors arising out of this era include: James Fenimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne